Corporate governance and ownership reforms in Japan Essay

Corporate governance and ownership reforms in Japan - Essay Example The paper will review recent shareholder activism, board structure, the latest corporate scandal, and reforms in the regulative environment of Japanese corporate governance as well as judicial system reformation conducted in the past few years. The paper will also present an analysis of data collected from previous research on the effects of foreign investment in Japanese firms and the introduction and assimilation of U.S. boardroom structures to Japanese corporations. The paper will further examine the attitudes of Japanese managers, legal practitioners, and acceptance and resistance to traditional governance methods vis-a-vis the new U.S.-style forms of governance and ownership structures. Also, the paper will delve into the conflicts and tensions created by the adoption of U.S.-style shareholder activism or board structures in the corporate world among the Japanese business legal practices, and provide analysis of some of the factors involved in such frictions. Introduction The li nkage between corporate ownership and governance has been studied for many decades from various angles. While this area of scholarship had largely emphasized the widely-held type of ownership2 and agency problems that arose out of it,3 corporate ownership and governance issues continue to differ worldwide even after economies or business practices have largely converged.4 As corporate activity spread across the world, scholarship has gradually started to focus on institutional and functional differences.5 Broadly speaking, the analysis of this divergence has been conducted through how corporate governance converted and persisted. While convergence optimists claim dominance toward the U.S.-type shareholder-centered model,6 the ownership structure and unique characteristics of corporate ownership and governance still remain significant. The persistence of this divergence is analyzed through the theory of complementarity in each corporate governance system.7 It is true that the global corporate governance system certainly seems to be unified both functionally and formally, despite persisting differences.8 However, as seen in the example of Japan in this paper, corporate ownership and governance are shaped by historical path-dependence, and the social norms of each country still plays an important role in corporate governance. The reformation of corporate ownership and governance in Japan after the collapse of so-called bubble economy in 1990 is a prime example of corporate governance convergence and persistence. Corporate ownership in Japan had been characterized by reciprocal cross-shareholdings among corporation and banks. Also, corporate governance in Japan has a unique character where the main bank and employee interests play a central role with insider-oriented boards. As we will see in the following chapter, this structure experienced significant change after the 1990s through dissolving cross-ownership and adopting some shareholder-oriented, Anglo-American rules of governance. While these reformations can be considered as a corporate conversion caused by globalization, many Japanese corporations still retain unique governance characteristics and adopt U.S-style rules and practices, causing conflict and tension among Japanese businesses and legal practitioners. This paper attempts to address the issue derived from corporate conversion and persistence that occurred very recently in Japan. I: Dissolution of Cross

Teenage Suicide in the Middle East Essay Example for Free

Teenage Suicide in the Middle East Essay Generally-speaking, from the data available, the teen suicide rate in the Middle East is tremendously low – lower in this region than anywhere in the entire world. Part of this, however, may be due to underreporting. Few nations in the Middle East have actually submitted data to WHO as far as suicide rates are concerned, and those that have are characterized by incredibly low rates. Egypt’s last report to WHO was in 1987: a 0.0 youth suicide rate (15 to 24 year olds), statistically-speaking, with only 3 total suicides (1 male, 2 females). Iran’s last report to WHO came in 1991: a 0.3 youth suicide rate with only 34 total deaths (25 males, 9 females). Jordan reported to WHO in 1979: a 0.0 youth suicide rate, zero total suicides for those between 15 and 24 years old for that entire year. Kuwait’s report is the most recent, as it came to WHO in 2001: a 0.6 youth suicide rate, with 2 total deaths (both males). It’s so intriguing compared to the rest of the globe. If the data that has been submitted is accurate and holds true across the region, it actually wouldn’t be that surprising. The Middle East is one of those difficult-to- decipher regions as far as East or West is concerned. As far as its leaders are concerned, it seems to prefer neither, or at least somewhere in between. Going back to Durkheim, this would be considered a moderate region. Its social integration and regulation are both moderate. Again, as Durkheim said, this would mean low suicide rates; the theory seems to be fit. However, what about the center the Middle East is becoming for radicalism in recent years? It has become a base for religious fundamentalism, led by terrorist organizations like Al Qaeda and Hamas. These groups use violence to get their points across and it is beginning to catch the eyes’ of the region’s young people. The terrorists know that teenagers are easiest to recruit – they don’t fully have their lives planned out and many of them become attracted to doing something for a greater cause. These teenagers have grown up learning about violence and how it can be glorified. They have been taught by radicals that being part of a suicide bombing is a noble deed that will gain them everlasting life and the adorned title of ‘martyr.’ The textbooks that children currently use in Afghanistan are filled with violence. The books are â€Å"lavishly illustrated with bombs, landmines, guns, and soldiers and filled with [†¦] jihad and other milita nt Islamic teachings† (Sluzki 3). How ironic it is that these books were given to Afghan schools from the United States, in an attempt to increase children’s interest in waging war against the Soviet Union. Now children read these books and become interested in fighting the United States after hearing the repeated call, often propaganda, from nearby terrorist groups. This is just one example of how â€Å"seeds of violence† as Sluzki put it are being instilled in children’s minds (Sluzki 3). For more instances of violence being portrayed to youth, one need not look further than Palestine. Journalist Kenneth Timmerman wrote a disturbing article about the Palestinian Authority under Yasser Arafat. It was producing music videos, meant to appeal to children and teens, that encouraged the young to become martyrs and kill Israelis. The videos were made out of popular music and aired continuously on television. In one video in particular, a young boy is shown on his way to commit a suicide bombing. He says his goodbyes and sings, â€Å"Mother, do not cry for me.† That very line has appeared in at least three actual suicide notes between May 2001 and December 2002 – those who wrote the notes were between the ages of 14 and 17. This makes it clear that the videos were having an effect on teens. The worst part about the videos is that they glorify the act, make it seem painless, and in every way make it positive, an achievement, a holy and honorable act for the Palestinian people. (Timmerman 35) Another article sheds further light on violence and children in Palestine. According to Eyad Serraj, a psychologist in Gaza, many older children and teenagers view martyrdom in a positive light. Serraj says â€Å"that a poll conducted in the summer of 2003 showed that 36% of 12-year-old boys questioned in Gaza said they believed sacrificing themselves for the Palestinian cause was the best thing they could do with their lives† (Blanche 24). Serraj is not surprised by the find: In their minds, the only model of power and glory is the martyr. Palestinian society glorifies the martyr. They are elevated to the level of saints. In the hopeless and inhuman environment in which they live there is the promise that they will have a better life in heaven †¦ There’s a very big pool of potential martyrs. They’re queuing up, and that happens because hope is diminishing. (Blanche 24) To be fair, not all Middle Easterners are in favor of this trend – using children and teenagers as suicide bombers. Even in Palestine, where the act is being most promoted, it is hearing stern criticism from some. An article elaborates on an incident in March 2004 in which a teen, who was about to commit a suicide bombing, was caught before the act. It has stirred a lot of concern and emotion in Palestine. The 16-year old surrendered at an Israeli checkpoint and was held briefly by Israeli forces. A day later, his mother Tamam Abdo issued a statement: â€Å"No one the age of my son should be used to commit such acts [†¦] Maybe if he was 20, perhaps I could understand. At that age, they know what they are doing.† She said he was nothing more than a misguided teenager. Following the incident, several other Palestinians were interviewed and voiced their anger about the young being used as suicide bombers. Mohammed Zeidal, a college student, said that â€Å"to use someone his age is very, very wrong.† Bassem Eid, head of the Palestinian Human Rights Monitoring Group, went on the record saying, â€Å"It is really shameful for the Palestinian reputation [†¦] to misuse our children and push them to their death.† This is not to say that all are opposed to such acts – as mentioned earlier, there is support for youth suicide bombings in Palestine –, but it should also be clear that there is some resistance to them as well. (â€Å"Teenagers in Suicide Bombings†) This information about terrorism and suicide bombings is not at all meant to overshadow the earlier data, but it is certainly pertinent in a discussion about teen suicide in the Middle East. Again, it must be reiterated that teen suicide rates are indeed among the lowest in the Middle East of any region in the world – at least according to the data that is available (it is scare for the region). The region serves as a living testament to Durkheim’s theory; it fully supports his belief that more moderately structured societies will have lower suicide rates. Teenage Suicide in East Asia Japan It is not uncommon for Americans to think of Japan as a whole different world. After all, it is on the other side of the globe. The similarities though are striking, thanks to the impact of the Western world. After much resistance, Japan finally opened its nation up for trade with the West in the 1850’s, falling to pressure from the United States. Ever since, Japan has adapted to Western life in many forms. It has seen that for it to compete on the global scale it has little choice but to make changes to its traditional way of life. In the 20th century, Japan blossomed with technological advances and finally put itself on the map. It took up competition with the United States and countries in Europe. This history may not seem relevant, but it is important to understanding the development of teenage suicide in Japan. Ever since being exposed to the West, Japan has felt extreme pressures from the outside world. These pressures have forced its people to fight in an ongoing struggle to be competitive. However, they have also done harm to its people. Japanese teenagers especially grow up being reminded of this need to be the best that they can. Sometimes it can be too much to bare. So why not suicide? Everything can end in one instant. The teen suicide rate in Japan has fluctuated considerably over the course of the last 35 years. According to WHO, the Japanese suicide rate in 1970 for 15 to 19 year olds was 7.8 per 100,000. By 1991, WHO reports that the suicide rate for the very same age group had been cut in half to just 3.8. A 1994 study by Zinn, et al, also alluded to a dropping rate, stating that â€Å"suicide is no longer an honorable act† in Japan (7-11). It adds that â€Å"teenagers (10-19 year olds) made up just over 2% of suicides† in Japan in 1992. However, the most recent reports point to Japan’s suicide rate being on the rise, and that includes teenagers. A BBC News article published in 1999 discounts Zinn’s earlier statement, explaining Japan’s increase in suicides in the mid-to-late 1990’s as a result of its â€Å"deeply ingrained culture that regards suicide as an honourable way to atone for failure and express remorse† (â€Å"World: Asia-Pacific Japan on suicide alert†). The article mentions that from 1997 to 1998 â€Å"junior high school student suicides increased by 40 to 102. At high schools, 220 students took their own lives in 1998, an increase of 51.† Japan’s most recent report to WHO in the year 2000 further supports an increase. The youth suicide rate was reported to have jumped to 11.5, higher than the United States rate of 10.2 for that year. While the most recent data encompasses 19-24 year olds in addition to those 15-19, the increase has been consistent with the rise in other industrialized nations. One particular article of interest, as to explicate possible motives for teen suicide, is â€Å"Bullied to Death in Japan† by Lauren Freedman. The article takes a look at the pressures of teenage boys growing up in Japan in the early to mid 1990’s (recent statistics make it probable that these pressures still hold true today). Bullying is the central focus, something that has become a huge problem in the nation, strikingly similar to what bullying has become in the United States. â€Å"Bullying is an old and widespread problem in Japan,† Freedman writes. Katsuyuki Ogawa, a psychologist in Tokyo, went so far as to say just about everyone will undergo the experience of being bullied. According to Freedman, and many Japanese experts who she refers to in her article, society is to blame. Professor Yaichi Wakai put it very bluntly: â€Å"Japan is a competitive society, and bullying is one distorted phenomenon of that severe competition.† (Freedman 25) Taking this into account and looking again at the history explained earlier, hearing that bullying occurs in Japan is not much of a surprise. The fact that it results in suicide isn’t that shocking either when everything is taken into consideration. So Japan, in fact, isn’t a whole different world. Many Japanese parents are forced to bury their teenagers just as in the United States. Although on the other side of the globe, Japanese instances of teen suicide actually mirror that of America in the ways discussed. China Hong Kong China is immensely different than nearby Japan. It isn’t considered a Western nation. Instead, it is deeply rooted in a tradition and history of its own, which of course has included thinkers like Confucius. It strives for excellence and works together as a people. It has continued along these lines into the new millennium and is widely known for its communist government. In such a place, where the individual isn’t strived for, but rather the collective whole, some may initially think suicide does not exist. But this thinking would be absurd. It is absolutely true that, based on the data available, teenage suicide doesn’t occur in rates as high in China as it does in Western nations, but teenage suicide in China does occur. One of the problems to investigating it is simple: it has not been well documented. The fact that it doesn’t appear to be a widespread problem may attribute to the lack of documentation. It seems that teen suicide in China is sporadic and the cases almost very isolated from each other. In China’s 1999 report to WHO, the nation reported a low 6.9 youth suicide rate – 5.4 for males and 8.6 for females. This comprised 1,541 total deaths in that year, 626 males and 915 females. This is the first occurrence of the female rate being higher, possibly suggesting that the high male rate may be associated with Western nations. The reason for the high female rate in China has not been explained, but it could be due to the fact that males are seen so much more important in Chinese socie ty. The â€Å"one-child† rule in China forces parents to give up their daughters, as they usually want sons. Perhaps, and it is only a theory, many of these girls grow up contemplating suicide and ultimately commit the act. If there was more data available, better sense could be made of these figures. In an article about Chinese suicide ideation, the lack of information is mentioned. â€Å"We could find only one study specifically assessing suicide ideation in a community sample of Chinese young people,† it said. That study, conducted in 1996 by men named Zhang and Jin, compared suicidal thoughts between college students in the United States and China. It found that the idea of suicide between cultures differed in many ways, with religiosity ending up the only definitive reason that both cultures would take suicide into consideration. (Stewart 227-240) This leads to the Hong Kong study, which was published in the article mentioned above. Interesting about Hong Kong is that it has been much more wrapped in Western culture than nearby China. After all, it had been ruled by the British for over a century. Once it began adopting Western ideals, teenage suicide occurred more frequently in Hong Kong. Again, the highest rates of suicide have long been associated with the Western way of life. However, as the study points out, it didn’t experience teen suicides rates quite as high as elsewhere. A probable reason for this is that it held onto at least some of its Asian roots, heavily based on Chinese culture. This makes Hong Kong quite a unique and interesting place when we look at suicide among teenagers. Here is a place that is being tugged by both Western culture and its traditional Eastern culture at the same time. Both influences have remained prevalent, at least to some extent. Even more interesting then – what if we took a look at teenagers in Hong Kong who were born in China, and had emigrated? This is precisely what the â€Å"Suicide Ideation† study addressed. The study took a look at 996 Chinese adolescents living in Hong Kong: 500 male and 496 female. They were asked to complete a survey in school and then conclusions were drawn. A significant difference from the majority of suicides in Western nations was uncovered. It was found that those who were considering suicide were doing so not because of reasons like peer pressure or the media. Instead, and overwhelmingly, the Chinese teenagers said they were doing it because of pressure from their parents. This remained consistent between both males and females too. (Stewart 227-240) Although there are many differences between Japan and China, similar to the former, China strives for excellence among its people. A major difference is Japan does it for the good of the individual where in China i t occurs for the good of society as a whole. Nevertheless, this work ethic, deeply rooted in East Asian tradition, is once again creating pressures. But instead of blaming specific, isolated individuals (as in bullying) for their suicidal thoughts, these Chinese students are pointing to the closest collective item they know and constantly come into contact with – their parents. Their parents, mother and father, are pressuring them to do the best they can for society. They hear it over and over from them. They are not attributing the suicidal thoughts to peers or pressures to be â€Å"cool† for instance, but instead to their elders who they are told to follow in every respect. The difference in their state of mind is significant. (Stewart 227-240) Still, as proven by this study, the thoughts do exist, even among Chinese teenagers – that thought of putting an end to one’s life. Perhaps because they have that support group, that collective society, and are not being singled out by others, is why their actual rates of suicide are low. The thoughts exist among Chinese teens, but it seems fewer actually go t hrough with the action.

An Analysis Of Emission Spectra Environmental Sciences Essay

An Analysis Of Emission Spectra Environmental Sciences Essay Emission spectra are the radiation emitted by the atoms when their electrons jump from higher energy level to lower energy level. The emission spectrum of a chemical element or chemical compound is the relative intensity of each frequency of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the elements atoms or the compounds molecules when they are returned to a ground state. The subatomic particles that comprise the atom can absorb various kinds of energy and then emit that energy as a photon of a specific energy and corresponding wavelength and frequency. This emitted energy is called an emission spectrum. Electrons in particular release electromagnetic radiation in the visible range as well as in wavelengths surrounding the visible range. The particular wavelength that an electron releases depends on the difference between its ground state energy and the energy level that it jumps to. The amount of energy required for an electron to jump to a higher energy level depends on where it is starting from (its ground state). So the specific visible wavelengths (colors) released by an atom that has absorbed energy depend on the arrangement of its electrons. All the various elements and molecules that exist have their own unique arrangement of electrons, and so the particular wavelengths (colors) produced will always be unique to any one element or molecule. Th is spectrum of specific electromagnetic waves can therefore identify the substance. Note that Bohr used discreet emission spectra to show the discreet energies possessed by electrons in atoms. Because the electrons of different atoms so closely arranged in solid substances influence each other, the spectrum of a solid is different from that of the substances gas state, where the electron arrangement of individual atoms or molecules are not interfered with by neighboring atoms or molecules. Normally, therefore, substances are identified by their gas phase spectrum. A plot of the brightness of an object versus wavelength is called a spectrum, (even called spectra), and is observed using a spectrograph. By spreading out the light by wavelength, we can gain insight into whats happening to photons of particular wavelengths (or energies), which in turn tells us whats happening with particular types of atoms. There are three components of a spectrum: continuum emission (or blackbody radiation), emission lines, and absorption lines. Continuum emission is a wide, smooth (continuous!) band of colors like a rainbow. This type of emission is caused by an opaque material which emits radiation because of its temperature. Hotter objects are brighter and bluer than cooler objects. All objects have continuum radiation. (Even you; although in your case, since its in the infrared, we usually call it heat.) An absorption line is characterized by a lack of radiation at specific wavelength. Absorption lines are created by viewing a hot opaque object through a cooler, thin gas. The cool gas in front absorbs some of the continuum emission from the background source, and re-emits it in another direction, or at another frequency. Absorption lines are subtracted from the continuum emission, so that they appear fainter. An emission line is characterized by excessive radiation at specific wavelengths. You can observe emission lines by looking through a spectrometer at an energized gas. They are created by the photons that are released by the falling electrons. The important thing to know about absorption and emission lines is that every atom of a particular element (hydrogen, say) will have the same pattern of lines all the time. And the spacing of the lines is the same in both absorption and emission, only emission lines are added to the continuum, while absorption lines are subtracted. VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS OF SCIENTISTS IN EARLY AGE: When a sample of gaseous atoms of an element at low pressure is subjected to an input of energy, such as from an electric discharge, the atoms are themselves found to emit electromagnetic radiation. On passing through a very thin slit and then through a prism the light (electromagnetic radiation) emitted by the excited atoms is separated into its component frequencies. The familiar dispersion of white light is illustrated below: Solids, liquids and dense gases glow at high temperatures. The emitted light, examined using a spectroscope, consists of a continuous band of colours as in a rainbow. A continuous spectrum is observed. This is typical of matter in which the atoms are packed closely together. Gases at low pressure behave quite differently. The excited atoms emit only certain frequencies, and when these are placed as discreet lines along a frequency scale an atomic emission spectrum is formed. The spectral lines in the visible region of the atomic emission spectrum of barium are shown below. Spectral lines exist in series in the different regions (infra-red, visible and ultra-violet) of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation. The spectral lines in a series get closer together with increasing frequency. Each element has its own unique atomic emission spectrum. EXPLANATION OF ABOVE MENTIONED OBSERVATIONS: It was necessary to explain how electrons are situated in atoms and why atoms are stable. Much of the following discussion refers to hydrogen atoms as these contain only one proton and one electron making them convenient to study. In the early 1913, the famous scientist Neils Bohr solved many problems in chemistry of the time by proposing his view that the electron revolves around the nucleus of the atom with a definite fixed energy in a fixed path, without emitting or absorbing energy. The electron in the hydrogen atom exists only in certain definite energy levels. These energy levels are called Principal Quantum Levels, denoted by the Principal Quantum Number, n. Principal Quantum Level n = 1 is closest to the nucleus of the atom and of lowest energy. When the electron occupies the energy level of lowest energy the atom is said to be in its ground state. An atom can have only one ground state. If the electron occupies one of the higher energy levels then the atom is in an excited state. An atom has many excited states. When a gaseous hydrogen atom in its ground state is excited by an input of energy, its electron is promoted from the lowest energy level to one of higher energy. The atom does not remain excited but re-emits energy as electromagnetic radiation. This is as a result of an electron falling from a higher energy level to one of lower energy. This electron transition results in the release of a photon from the atom of an amount of energy (E = h Ã‚ ®) equal to the difference in energy of the electronic energy levels involved in the transition. In a sample of gaseous hydrogen where there are many trillions of atoms all of the possible electron transitions from higher to lower energy levels will take place many times. A prism can now be used to separate the emitted electromagnetic radiation into its component frequencies (wavelengths or energies). These are then represented as spectral lines along an increasing frequency scale to form an atomic emission spectrum. Principal Quantum Levels (n) for the hydrogen atom. Comment: A hydrogen atom in its Ground State. The electron occupies the lowest possible energy level which in the case of hydrogen is the Principal Quantum Level n = 1. The Bohr Theory was a marvelous success in explaining the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. He calculated wavelengths agreed perfectly with the experimentally measured wavelengths of the spectral lines. Bohr knew that he was on to something; matching theory with experimental data is successful science. More recent theories about the electronic structure of atoms have refined these ideas, but Bohrs model is still very helpful to us. For clarity, it is normal to consider electron transitions from higher energy levels to the same Principal Quantum Level. The image given below illustrates the formation of spectral lines in visible region of the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation for hydrogen, called the Balmer Series. The Spectral Lines are in Series As referred to above for hydrogen atoms, electron transitions form higher energy levels all to the n = 2 level produce a series of lines in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum, called the Balmer Series. The series of lines in the ultra-violet region, called the Lyman Series, are due to electron transitions from higher energy levels all to the n = 1 level, and these were discovered after Bohr predicted their existence. Within each series, the spectral lines get closer together with increasing frequency. This suggests that the electronic energy levels get closer the more distant they become from the nucleus of the atom. No two elements have the same atomic emission spectrum; the atomic emission spectrum of an element is like a fingerprint. The diagram to the right illustrates the formation of three series of spectral lines in the atomic emission spectrum of hydrogen. THE RESON BEHIND DISTINCT WAVELENGTHS: As we know light from a mercury discharge tube was composed of only three colors, or three distinct wavelengths of light. This feature, that an element emits light of specific colors, is an enormously useful probe of how individual atoms of that element behave. Indeed, the science of spectroscopy was developed around the discovery that each element of the periodic table emits light with its own set characteristic wavelengths, or emission spectrum. of light. If one has a collection of several elements, all emitting light, and the spectra of the different elements combine or overlap. By comparing the combined spectra to the known spectra of individual elements, we can discover which elements are present. It is amusing to note that the element helium was first discovered in this manner through the spectroscopic analysis of light from the sun in 1868 and was only later discovered in terrestrial minerals in 1895. But why do we see distinct wavelengths in emission spectra? And why are the spectra different for particular elements? There is nothing distinct about the light from an incandescent source such as the ordinary light bulb. In an empirical study of the spectrum of hydrogen, Balmer discovered that the precise frequencies and wavelengths of the light produced could be described by a simple equation involving a constant and an integer. Balmers equation was then expanded to describe the entire spectrum of hydrogen, including the ultra-violet and the infrared spectral lines. This equation is called the Rydberg equation: = R (â‚ ¬Ã‚ ­ ), Where R is the Rydberg constant, and n1 and n2 are integers. The presence of integers in this equation created a real problem for physicists until the development of the quantum theory of the atom by Neils Bohr. Bohrs theory suggested that the electron orbiting the nucleus could have only certain quantized angular momenta. The implication of this idea is that the electron can orbit only at certain fixed distances and velocities around the nucleus and subsequently can possess only certain discrete energies. Individual electron orbits are associated with specific energy levels. Integer numbers uniquely identify these levels and these integers, quantum numbers, are the ones that show up in the Rydberg equation and that are labeled n1 and n2. The integers in Rydbergs equations identify electron orbits of specific radius. In general, the larger the value of the integer, the larger the size of the orbit. Rydbergs equation says that the wavelength of the light emitted from an atom depends on two electron orbits. The interpretation is that an electron makes a transition from the initial orbit identified by the integer n1 to a final orbit identified by the integer n2. Furthermore, since there is a unique energy associated with each electron orbit, these integers n1 and n2 also identify or tag the energy of the electron. Hence, a discrete amount of energy is released or absorbed when an electron makes a transition between two orbits. In the case of the atom, when an electron makes a transition from one orbit to another with a lesser value of its identifying integer, energy is released from the atom and takes the form of emitted light of a distinct wavelength, or equivalently, of distinct frequency. So the picture we have is that electron transitions between different orbits produce different wavelengths of light and that the actual wavelength value of the light depends on the energy difference between the two orbits. Furthermore, since the energies of the different orbits and the energies of the transitions are determined by the atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), each atom has its own characteristic spectrum. distances and velocities around the nucleus and subsequently can possess only certain discrete energies. Individual electron orbits are associated with specific energy levels. Integer numbers uniquely identify these levels and these integers, quantum numbers, are the ones that show up in the Rydberg equation and that are labeled n1 and n2. Emission Line Spectra of Various Elements REFERANCE NO. Explanation of the above Image: First spectrum is hydrogen, typical of a hydrogen spectrum tube. Second spectrum is helium, typical of a helium spectrum tube. Third spectrum is lithium, as typically from a flame or an electric arc. Fourth spectrum is neon. Fifth spectrum is low pressure sodium, but with secondary lines exaggerated. Sixth spectrum is argon, typical of an argon glow lamp or spectrum tube. Next spectrum is copper, drawn using a wavelength table and Ioannis Galidakis photos of a copper arc spectrum (see link below). Oxide lines which may appear in the flame spectrum are not shown. Next spectrum is zinc, drawn using a wavelength table and a photo by Ioannis Galidakis of a zinc arc spectrum. Intensity of the red line is shown for the slightly greenish light blue usual zinc arc, but Ioannis reports getting a pinkish zinc arc and shows the red line to be brighter. Next spectrum is barium. Oxide lines are not included. Next spectrum is krypton. Ion lines typical of flashlamp use are not included. Next spectrum is that of the most common variety of metal halide lamp, which is basically a mercury vapor lamp enhanced with iodides of sodium and scandium. Next spectrum is that of a xenon flashtube of lower-than-usual pressure, operated with a higher than usual voltage and a lower than usual energy level to favor a line spectrum. An actual typical xenon spectrum generally has a strong continuous spectrum, which I show more dimly than actually occurs in order to show the lines. The lines are mainly those of excited xenon ions, rather than excited neutral xenon atoms. At lower current, the most distinct visible spectral lines are two close together in the blue and the brightness is usually low. Next spectrum is high pressure mercury vapor, typical of a mercury vapor lamp. Low pressure mercury vapor has a similar spectrum except the green line is slightly dimmer and the yellow lines are significantly dimmer. Next one after that is a mercury lamp with the common Deluxe White phosphor. Next one after that is a compact fluorescent lamp of the 2700K color. Emission line spectra of various other elements is given below APPLICATIONS: Emission Spectroscopic techniques are used in Flame Emission Spectroscopy Energy spectra are used in astrophysical spectroscopy. Energy Spectra are used in Optical Spectroscopy

Beowulf and the Dragon :: Anglo Saxon Strength Poems Essays

Beowulf and the Dragon Beowulf is a poem about strength and courage. This is illustrated in the eighth section of the story called â€Å"Beowulf and the Dragon.† A slave, a hero and a dragon play a big role in this section. The characters are well developed, as is the setup for the conclusion of the poem. In the scene, â€Å"Beowulf and the Dragon,† a slave guilty of wrongdoing has to steal to earn his freedom and be forgiven for what he has done wrong. The slave decides to steal a beautiful cup to pay off his mistake, which was probably murder. The slave does not realize that he is stealing from the dragon until he actually sees the dragon. The slave immediately knows that it is an enormous mistake to anger the dragon, but he panics and leaves with the cup. When the dragon awakes after three hundred years of sleep, he discovers that his cup has been stolen. The dragon, also known as the worm, fills with anger and rage. Even though he is so angry, he does like the idea of battle: â€Å"Yet he took joy in the thought of war, in the work of fighting† (Donaldson 40). The dragon cannot wait to ravage the land of the people where one man has stolen from him: â€Å"The hoard-guard waited restless until evening came; then the barrow-keeper was in rage: he would requite that precious drinking cup with vengeful fire† (Donaldson 40). The dragon destroys the land and kills everyone around. The dragon even destroys Beowulf’s home. When Beowulf finds out about his home being destroyed, he decides that he is going to kill the dragon himself. Although Beowulf is very old at this point, he still has the confidence to slay the dragon. Beowulf has been king for fifty years, and he knows that all of his experiences in battle is enough for him to defeat the dragon. This is the first scene in where we see Beowulf as an old man. The poem skips fifty years between the first and second parts, and this scene picks up after the fifty-year gap. This scene also sets up Beowulf’s last great battle, which happens with the dragon. This scene also describes Anglo-Saxon beliefs. The scene shows how the people, and the dragon, love to fight. It is their way of life. It also shows a little bit of the law.

Supply and Demand and Cell Phones

Damita Nix 1/15/2012 CTU Online ECON202-1201B Phase 1 Individual Project1 Instructor Olanrewaju Abstract This paper will explore the world of two particular types of cell phones that are identical with minor features. I will be demonstrating skills in using the tools of economics for decision making for the firm operating in the market economy to include supply and demand, elasticity of demand, consumer behavior and utility maximization, and the costs of production both short-run and long-run. I will also be demonstrating the ability to clearly present views in written and/or oral expression. On the web, I will research additional information about the A-Phone and the Pomegranate. The task below also requires me to draw graphs of supply and demands increases and decreases. When the task is complete you will have learned about the demand curve of an A phone, a clear understanding on what happens to the price and quantity supplied, equilibrium, and effects on government interventions with cell phones. Title: Cell Phones Part I Draw the demand curve for the A-Phone. Explain how the graph, price, and quantity demanded  will change if the following occurs: * There is an overall increase in income. There is an overall increase in income and people believe that the Pomegranate is now better than the A-Phone. * The price of the A-Phone goes up  when a flaw is found in the Pomegranate. * A new type of walkie-talkie has an unlimited range and is basically free. * It is discovered that there are health concerns when using cell phones. * There is a baby boom. * The price of the A -Phone and the Pomegranate both go up. Price P1 P2 P3 Demand Q1 Q2 Q3 Quantity What happens to the supply of cell phones if the market price goes up? Part II Explain what happens to the price and quantity supplied and how it reflects on a graph if the following occurs: * It becomes more expensive to produce cell phones. * More cell phones are being produced with the same amount of inputs. * Walkie talkies are popular because of the new technological change mentioned above. * Another company starts producing cell phones, and now there are  3 producers in the market. * People think the price of cell phones will go up in the future. PriceSupply P1 Q1 Quantity Part III Draw a graph which shows the equilibrium price of cell phones. Explain what the graph is showing. When the new manufacturer introduces the Robo cell phone to the market, how does that effect the equilibrium price if the Robo is basically the same as the other cell phones? ————- Part IV As the public’s dependence on cell phones continues to grow, the cost of the phones may be decreasing, but the stronghold that  telecommunication companies have on the public in regards to contracts and climbing fees is alarming. Additionally, all cell phone companies charge about the same prices, and the consumers do not have much choice in substituting providers. Consumers appear to need some controls in this regard, and the government decides to step in. * What is the effect of government intervention in the cell phone market? Make sure that you use graphs to illustrate your point. * Is this a good thing for consumers? On the other hand, the government sees the increase in cell phone use as an opportunity to make some additional revenue, and it decides to tax  service  providers. * Who is really paying the tax? * Illustrate your conclusion on a graph. * Do you think that there is a free market for cell phone users? Why or why not? References

Possessives and Apostrophes on SAT Writing 4 Key Tips

Possessives and Apostrophes on SAT Writing 4 Key Tips SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Do you know how to determine if a noun should have an apostrophe? Do you know where to place apostrophes in possessive nouns? Do you know when to use there vs. they're? These are all topics that are tested on the SAT. The SAT Writing section has questions about possessive nouns and pronouns. In this article, I'll provide you with all the rules and strategies to correctly answer these questions. Possessives on the SAT Possessives indicate ownership. Here are some example sentences with the possessives underlined: Sergio’s kindness is amazing. The students’ behavior was unacceptable. Their voices should be heard. Generally, you can expect about 2-4 questions about possessives on the SAT. The questions on possessives will test your knowledge of possessive nouns and possessive pronouns. Possessive Nouns On the SAT, you will be tested on how to correctly form possessive nouns. Thankfully, the basic rules for forming possessive nouns are pretty simple. If a word is singular or if it’s plural but it doesn’t end in â€Å"s,† then you add an apostrophe and then an "s" to the end of the word. The giraffe’s neck is really long. The children’s playground has monkey bars. To create a possessive for a plural word that does end in â€Å"s,† just place the apostrophe after the â€Å"s.† I saw a dance troupe perform last night, and I was impressed with the dancers’ skills. Prayitno/Flickr On the SAT Writing section, the questions on possessive nouns are about determining whether an apostrophe is needed, and if so, whether the possessive is singular or plural. Should a Noun Be Possessive? To determine if a noun should be possessive, take the noun, put an â€Å"of† in front of it, and stick it after the noun or phrase that follows it. Here’s an example: The schools code of conduct is very strict. Here’s how you change the sentence to determine if â€Å"school† should be possessive: The code of conduct of the school is very strict. Does that make sense? Yes. The sentence is referring to the code of conduct belonging to the school; therefore, â€Å"school† should be possessive. This is the corrected sentence: The school’s code of conduct is very strict. Also, plural nouns don’t contain apostrophes. Check out this example: Incorrect: I downloaded 15 song’s yesterday. Correct: I downloaded 15 songs yesterday. Is the sentence describing "yesterday of the song?" No. That doesn't make much sense. The sentence is just using the plural form of the word â€Å"song† because there was more than one song downloaded. Because the noun isn’t being used as a possessive, there shouldn’t be an apostrophe. Should the Possessive Noun Be Plural or Singular? The other factor you’ll have to consider is whether a possessive should be plural or singular. As mentioned above, that can have an impact on where the apostrophe is placed. For example, â€Å"the candidate’s rhetoric† refers to the rhetoric of one candidate, and â€Å"the candidates’ rhetoric† refers to the rhetoric of more than one candidate. Use context clues to determine if the possessive should be singular or plural. Example: Every contestant’s goal was to win the grand prize. Should the possessive be singular or plural? This sentence can be tricky for some students. Are we referring to the goal of one contestant or many contestants. Some may incorrectly assume that the possessive should be plural. However, â€Å"every† implies that we’re talking about the goal of each contestant individually. To remember that â€Å"every† implies singular, think of â€Å"every† as â€Å"every single.† Check out another example: All of the contestants’ buzzers weren’t working. â€Å"All† implies more than one; therefore, we should use a plural possessive and the apostrophe should come after the â€Å"s.† SAT Example The SAT will test you on the issues we just discussed. Use your knowledge of possessive nouns to answer these questions. There are two nouns in this sentence, â€Å"bodies† and â€Å"biological clocks.† Based on the answer choices, we know that we have to determine whether each noun is a plural noun, a singular possessive, or a plural possessive. You should recognize that â€Å"biological clocks† is a plural noun; there is no noun or phrase that follows â€Å"biological clocks† before the comma, and the sentence is not referring to anything of the biological clocks. Therefore, that noun shouldn’t contain an apostrophe. Immediately, we can get rid of B and D. Now we have to determine whether â€Å"bodies† should be a noun or a possessive. Let’s try the replacement method. Is the sentence stating that circadian rhythms are controlled by the "biological clocks of the body?" Yes. The sentence is indicating possession and â€Å"bodies† should be in the possessive form. The correct answer is C. The sentence is referring to the body in general and not multiple bodies, so we use the singular possessive form. Try one more example: From the answer choices, we know we have to determine whether â€Å"waterways† should be a possessive or a plural noun. Again, let's use the replacement method. Is the sentence describing something of the waterways or referring to more than one waterway? It should be a plural noun without an apostrophe because the sentence is stating that acid-whey runoff can pollute waterways. There is nothing indicating possession. Therefore, we can eliminate B and D. Now the question becomes a verb tense question. Because the sentence begins in the present tense with â€Å"is,† the correct answer should also have a verb in the present tense to maintain consistency. The correct answer is A. Possessive Pronouns The SAT will also test you on possessive pronouns. Examples of possessive pronouns include â€Å"my,† â€Å"your,† â€Å"its,† â€Å"his,† â€Å"her,† â€Å"our,† and â€Å"their.† Most of the SAT questions on possessive pronouns will test you on the third person possessive pronouns â€Å"its† and â€Å"their.† There are two types of possessive pronoun questions: word choice and pronoun agreement. Word Choice Homophones These are the most common type of possessive pronoun questions. Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings. Typically, you’ll have to choose whether to use â€Å"there,† â€Å"they’re,† or â€Å"their.† Or you’ll have to choose between â€Å"its† and â€Å"it’s.† Here is a table showing these common homophones and how they're used. there- usually shows location or that something exists they're- contraction for "they are" their- plural possessive pronoun its- singular possessive pronoun it's- contraction for "it is" Check out these example sentences that demonstrate how these words are used: Incorrect: The girls said mean things. There statements were unkind. Correct: The girls said mean things. Their statements were unkind. In this sentence, we can determine that the underlined word should be a possessive pronoun by using the replacement technique. The sentence is saying that the statements of them were unkind. The word â€Å"there† can be used in multiple ways, but to keeps things simple, just remember that â€Å"their† indicates possession and â€Å"there† doesn’t. silverkeys/Flickr Also, keep in mind that the word â€Å"they’re† is a contraction for â€Å"they are.† You can only use â€Å"they’re† if it can be replaced with â€Å"they are.† Incorrect: I love my friends. Their the best. Correct: I love my friends. They’re the best. The underlined word is not indicating possession, but it can be replaced with â€Å"They are.† â€Å"They† is a pronoun that refers to my friends and â€Å"are† is the verb in the sentence. Check out one more example: Incorrect: The puppy was wagging it’s tail. Correct: The puppy was wagging its tail. The word â€Å"it’s† is a contraction of â€Å"it is.† The word â€Å"its† indicates possession. The sentence is referring to the tail of the puppy or the tail of it. To correctly answer these types of questions, use the replacement technique to determine if the underlined word should be a possessive pronoun. Possessive Pronoun Agreement There may also be questions dealing with pronoun agreement. The main rule you have to remember is that a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. Singular pronouns must refer to singular nouns and plural pronouns must refer to plural nouns. Here are some examples: Incorrect: Sheila untied their shoes. Correct: Sheila untied her shoes. Incorrect: The chairs had dust on its legs. Correct: The chairs had dust on their legs. In the first sentence, the pronoun â€Å"their† describes the shoes of Sheila. Because Sheila is one person, we need to use the singular pronoun â€Å"her.† In the second sentence, the underlined pronoun refers to the legs of the chairs. Because â€Å"chairs† is plural, we should use the plural possessive pronoun â€Å"their.† SAT Examples Answer these questions related to possessive pronouns. First, let’s determine if the underlined word should be a contraction or a possessive. Does the word mean â€Å"it is† or is it a possessive? Let's try the replacement technique. Does this sentence work? Scientists have long known that soot particles facilitate melting by darkening snow and ice, limiting the ability of snow and ice to reflect the Sun's rays. Yes. That works. The sentence is referring to the ability of snow and ice to reflect the Sun’s rays; therefore the underlined word is a possessive. So we can get rid of A and C. Now we have to determine if the possessive pronoun should be singular or plural. What has the ability to reflect the Sun's rays? Snow and ice. That's two things, so the pronoun that takes their place needs to be plural. The correct answer is D. Try one more possessive pronoun question. In this question, there are two words in the underlined phrase that could be possessive pronouns. The first is the word â€Å"they’re,† which is a contraction for â€Å"they are.† Should that word remain the same, be the word â€Å"there,† or the possessive pronoun â€Å"their?† The sentence implies that the word is referring to the value of his findings, or â€Å"their value.† Therefore, we can immediately eliminate A and C. Next, let’s look at the underlined pronoun â€Å"their† after â€Å"in.† That word also refers to findings and should be a possessive. Thus, that word should remain the same and the correct answer is B. Review: Strategies for Possessive Questions Here are the most important tips to remember to conquer the SAT Writing questions about possessives. #1: Use the Replacement Technique Once you see a possessive underlined or in the answer choices, make sure you determine whether the word should be a possessive. Remember that â€Å"Justin’s book† is another way of saying â€Å"the book of Justin.† If you saw â€Å"Justins book,† you should recognize that there is an error because the phrase is referring to the book of Justin. If a sentence doesn’t work using the replacement technique, then the underlined word is not a possessive. #2: Singular or Plural? If you determine that one of the underlined words should be a possessive, then you need to decide whether the possessive should be in the singular or plural form. Use the replacement technique, and if the possessive is "of (singular noun)," then you need a singular possessive. If the possessive is "of (plural noun)," use a plural possessive. #3: Focus on Apostrophe Rules For possessive nouns, remember your apostrophe rules. For singular nouns or plural nouns that don’t end in â€Å"s,† just add an apostrophe to the word and then an â€Å"s.† For plural nouns that end in â€Å"s,† just and an apostrophe after the â€Å"s.† #4: Know Your Contractions On possessive questions, you may have to choose between â€Å"it’s† and â€Å"its† or â€Å"their† and â€Å"they’re.† Remember that â€Å"it’s† is a contraction for â€Å"it is† and â€Å"they’re† is a contraction for â€Å"they are.† If you select â€Å"it’s,† the sentence would have to make sense and be grammatically correct if you substituted â€Å"it’s† for â€Å"it is.† Similarly, if you selected â€Å"they’re,† the sentence would have to work if you substituted â€Å"they’re† for â€Å"they are.† What's Next? As you continue your SAT Writing studying, make sure you know the 12 most important grammar rules. Also, pay special attention to punctuation and transitions. Finally, if you're familiar with the old SAT, find out how SAT Writing has changed. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Writing and grammar lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial: